Abstract
On the basis of the analysis of scientific literature sources and relying on their own experience, the authors of the article pay special attention to the art of sculpture in its historical development and the importance of volumetric images for the educational process in schools and higher educational institutions. The animalist genre is considered separately. The authors consider sculptural images of animals both in antiquity and made by our contemporaries; images of sacred animals in ancient times as an object of worship; allegorical symbols and such a particularly interesting type of art as satirical allegory. The aesthetic meaning of sculpture in general and sculptural depiction of animals in particular.
The work is addressed to scientists, workers of the system of higher art and pedagogical education, students.
Key words: sculpture, art, animals, animalist, image, bas-relief, allegory, mosaic, folklore.
The art of sculpture has a very rich and intense history - from the most ancient times, when man first appeared as a species, to the present day. The earliest examples of this art date back to the late Palaeolithic period. A small statuette called "Venus of Hole-Fels" is at least 35,000 years old. This primitive figure of a woman with obese forms was carved from a mammoth tusk by an unknown sculptor. Currently, about 10 «Palaeolithic Venuses» have been found, created from stone, animal bones or moulded from clay.
Of all the arts, sculpture is closest to architecture. Aristide Maillol said that "sculpture is volume". Without realising it, we live surrounded by sculpture. A statuette on a bookshelf, monuments and fountains in squares, sculptural decorations on the walls of buildings - these are all sculptural works.
The genre has its origins in primitive art, as evidenced by cave paintings found in Spain (Altamira), France (Lascaux, Fond de Gom), Russia (Kapova Cave in the Southern Urals). In these drawings the movement and proportions of such wild animals as bulls, horses, deer, bears, bison are very vividly conveyed.
The appearance of the first civilisations gave a huge impetus to the development of different types of art. Already in Ancient Egypt appeared the first monumental sculptures that decorated entrances to temple complexes, squares and palaces of pharaohs. The world-famous figure of the big sphinx, carved from a monolithic limestone rock about 2500 years B.C., has survived to our days.
The world of sculpture is very diverse, in this article we will talk about animal sculptures, that is animalistic sculpture. Images of animals appeared in sculpture, perhaps even earlier than images of humans.
Animals are some of the most awe-inspiring and amazing creatures of this world. It's no wonder that recently the animalistic genre, or simply animalist, continues to gain momentum.
The animal world is a unique, inimitable phenomenon of nature. It surrounds us, complements us and, thanks to it, we become better, kinder. Since childhood we are surrounded by heroes of fairy tales and stories, who appear before us in the artistic images of animals. At all times and epochs man loved, tamed animals, studied them. These observations were then reflected in works of art: paintings and illustrations, sculptures or paintings of everyday objects.
A phenomenon that had a significant impact on the expressive means and stylistic features of early 20th century sculpture was the discovery of archaic and ancient art monuments. "The dream of the archaic is the last and most cherished dream of the art of our time, which with such inquisitiveness looked into all historical epochs," Maximilian Voloshin wrote.
The genre has its origins in primitive art in rock paintings found in Spain (Altamira), France (Lascaux, Fond de Gom), Russia (Kapova Cave in the Southern Urals). These drawings very vividly convey the movement and proportions of such wild animals as bull, horse, deer, bear, bison.
In 2018, archaeologists discovered giant stone sculptures of animals in Saudi Arabia. Huge camels carved in the rocks are more than 7 thousand years old. The sculptures are much older than the famous Stonehenge (4.5 - 5 thousand years) and the pyramids of Giza (4.5 thousand years).
Saudi Arabia was not a desert - there was enough water on this territory, and nature breathed green. At that time, mankind was already nomadic, but had not yet domesticated camels. Interestingly, without having direct contact with these animals, people still depicted them in huge sculptures. Such constructions are called mustatilas.
Animals were deified in the art of the ancient world, so you can often see their images in paintings, sculptures and jewellery. In Ancient Egypt, tall sculptures of animal gods were built. In Ancient Greece, animal motifs were often found in painted crockery, on the handles of weapons, carved seals and musical instruments. In ancient Russia relief patterns with fairy-tale beasts decorated the walls of white-stone temples, for example, Dmitrov Cathedral in Vladimir or the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl.
The famous stone monoliths on Easter Island, numerous statues of Buddhas in South-East Asia, unique samples of relief sculpture of Mayan civilisation have survived to our days.
Our smaller brothers have been neighbours with man since ancient times. Wild and domestic animals were willingly depicted by Etruscans, ancient Greeks and Romans. And a dog, and a mouse, and a lion, and even a camel. Stylised animal figures are found in the art of the Ancient East, monuments of the "animal style" in Europe and Asia (including Scythians, Sakas, Sarmatians, etc.), in the art of Africa, Oceania, ancient America, in the folk art of many countries. Images of animals are preserved in ancient sculpture, vase painting, mosaics. In the Middle Ages, allegorical and folklore, grotesque and fairy-tale images of birds and animals were widespread in Europe.
As is known, animals occupied an important place in the ideas of ancient religious people. They were and still are honoured as sacred animals. In their sanctuaries everything personified the divine essence. This and bas-reliefs on the walls, and individual sculptural sculptures of animals, and frescoes. With the development of religion, animals became integral symbols of many beliefs. For example, in ancient Middle Eastern religious rites, a lamb was identified with a sacrificial creature. As for the world religion, Christianity, here the image of the lamb was symbolic and associated with Christ, who sacrificed himself for all mankind. Gryphon was considered in the ancient centuries as a servant of Apollo and the guardian of light. On this basis, European artists began to replace human images in their works with animals.
Despite the honourable pedigree of the animalistic genre, interest in it has persisted because the environmental problems that have arisen today have led to the extinction of the animal world before our eyes and regret that this has happened.
There are many legends and myths about animals that have survived to this day. In Greek mythology, the centaur, a creature with the body of a horse and the upper part of a man's torso, was a rather lustful, but sensual and wise creature. In the Middle Ages, the symbol of the eagle, which was perceived as a symbol of nobility, was also important. This figure was given great importance in ritual rites (bathing a falcon in water). In the art of the Middle Ages, an allegorical symbol was popular, which personified the likeness of his and human life - this animal was a deer.
Sculptural monuments to animals and animalistic ceramics are an integral part of the history of ancient Africa, the Americas, and the Orient. Egyptian gods were often depicted with the heads of birds and animals.
One of the most famous animalistic sculptures of the ancient world is the winged bull with the face of a man - Shedu. Similar sculptures were created on the walls of the palaces of the Assyrian kings. So on the arched gates in the palace of the ruler Sargon II there are sculptures of Shedu made of limestone. Their creation is attributed to the end of the 8th century BC.
The creation of the Etruscan sculpture "Capitoline She-Wolf", which personifies Rome, is attributed by art historians to the 5th century BC. The sculpture was created by the Etruscans and then transported to Rome to the Capitoline Hill. According to ancient Roman myth, the she-wolf helped the brothers Romulus and Remulus by feeding them with her milk. These babies ruler Amulius ordered to throw into the river, fearing that they would be rivals in the struggle for the Roman throne. Unfortunately, the names of the authors of the above sculptures are unknown. Copies of the Capitoline she-wolf are still installed in many countries of the world: in the USA, Brazil, Spain, Macedonia, Sweden and others.
Animals in sculpture gained special significance in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The dog Cerberus, lions, statues of horses, sculptures of birds - all these creations decorated the halls of luxurious palaces, squares of ancient cities, green city parks and cosy private gardens.
The animal world is a unique, inimitable phenomenon of nature. It surrounds us, complements us and makes us better. From the very childhood we are surrounded by bright artistic images of animals, which appear before us as heroes of fairy tales and stories. In all times and epochs man loved, tamed animals, studied them. These observations, as a rule, were reflected in works of art: paintings and illustrations, sculptures or paintings of everyday objects.
Animalism, as an independent genre, can be identified only in the XVII century, when in Flanders and Holland appear the first artists-animalists.
At this time, animalistic painting developed rapidly in the Netherlands, France and Russia. In the XVIII century the attention of artists to the world of animals increased, the desire for a reliable representation of animals and birds, to study the anatomical features of their structure. This was especially noticeable in sculpture and decorative and applied arts.
Medieval architects widely used animal images in the design of temples, sometimes fantastic, filling church buildings with unique energy. In the Middle Ages, animal images looked a bit fairy-tale-like. Dogs were the favourite characters of the masters of that time. Faithful friends surrounded people in everyday life, on a walk, hunting. Thanks to such talented masters as A. L. Bari, P. J. Men, E. Fremieux, the animalistic genre in sculpture gained wide popularity and experienced its brilliant heyday.
The French sculptor Antoine Louis Bari became the central figure of animalistic plastic art in the second half of the 19th century.
His works are of special interest, he is the founder of the animalistic genre in sculpture.
Most of Bari's work is devoted to the depiction of animals. His "heroes" are free desert dwellers, regal beasts, powerful and limitlessly free.
Bari is the greatest master of the Romantic generation and, perhaps, of the entire pre-Rodenov period. "Winning back animalistics positions, even recently belonged to anthropomorphic images, has become a characteristic feature of the romantic direction, - writes Kostenevich. - Lions and tigers liked to show Delacroix. Bronze animals Antoine Louis Bari, also favoured large predators-cats, they are very close to them. They are natures wild, willful, impetuous, in a word - romantic".
For Bari, the world of animals is, above all, the world of wild nature, beyond human control and living according to its own harsh laws. The inhabitants of this world - lions heated up by hunting, panthers and lionesses tormenting their victims, wild horses rearing up on the fringes - were the favourite characters of his works.
Being close to romanticism, Bari wanted his works to distract the viewer from everyday life. Therefore, he showed the exotic animal world of tropical forests, scenes of struggle, turbulent movement. His works affirm the idea of the victory of the beautiful over the lowly.
Bari knew animals well, he worked a lot with nature in the zoological garden, studied in detail the anatomy and plasticity of animals. According to him, the image of an animal in motion requires special observation, because one anatomy is not enough here. Each animal is plastic in its own way, has characteristic habits, a special manner of movement, which must be captured to make the image natural.
Bari was most attracted to scenes of torment, a vivid example of which is the sculpture "Panther and Antelope". In the composition, the author showed a duel between two animals, the outcome of which is predetermined due to the unequal strength of the opponents. We see how the panther nails the antelope to the ground with a powerful blow of its paw and sinks its fangs into the victim. There is no symbolism here, unlike the "animal style" of antiquity, but simply expresses the blind energy of nature.
А. L. Bari had a great influence on the development of sculpture, laying the foundation for a whole school of artists-animalists of the XIX century. His followers revealed the rich possibilities of the animalistic genre, showing its ability to express different views on life.
In the Russian sculpture of the XIX century a remarkable animalist, connoisseur of horses was P. Klodt. Somewhere at the end of 1832 - beginning of 1833 sculptor Pyotr Klodt received a government order to perform two sculptural groups "Tamers of Horses", originally intended to decorate the wharves of Admiralteysky Boulevard. The work on these groups took almost twenty years, became almost the main business of the sculptor's life and brought him unprecedented success.
His works stand out for their expressive sculptural forms. The sculptor saw the tasks of the genre in revealing the natural beauty of the bodies and behaviour of animals. Strong, impetuous or calm horses by P. Klodt are attracted by their natural beauty. The sculptor carefully observes the nature and shows that animals give an example of high plastic culture of the body, natural naturalness of movements, vitality, endurance and thus improve the sense of beauty in the viewer.
"Percheron" by P. Klodt is the embodiment of strength. The mass of his body is whole, permeated by a single vital rhythm. Thanks to the firm staging of straight thick legs and dense rounded body sculptural volumes look emphasised weighty, significant. The beauty of natural forms favourably influences a person, bringing aesthetic pleasure.
P. Claude Percheron
Sculptor Evgeny Alexandrovich Lansere is rightly considered one of the best masters of small plastic art of the second half of the 19th century. At first he was engaged in modelling figures of horses and people as an amateur and quickly improved in this business. Thanks to the study of nature and visits to the workshops of experienced sculptors acquired a wealth of experience. Lansere created about 400 works, mainly genre scenes depicting horses, Russian troikas, hunts, historical and military subjects.
Е. Lansere paid more attention to everyday details. His small bronze sculptures were designed to be viewed carefully, learning more from interesting subjects about historical events and modernity. Sometimes there was a touch of naturalism in the works due to the overly detailed depiction of details, but the undoubted mastery of the animal, for example, in "Catching a Wild Horse", favoured the success of the works.
Е. Lancer. The Chase
There are 2 works in the permanent exposition of the Kharkov Art Museum.
The sculpture "Svyatoslav", created in 1886, depicts Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich on a campaign to Tsargrad in 970.
The sculpture "Chumak" (1870) depicts a young Chumak lying on a salt cart pulled by two oxen.
Л. Ober is known mainly for works that very accurately convey nature (such is his "Wolf" and other works). Some compositions are unusual - "Toad in Pleasure" is perceived as a satirical image, which ridicules the primitiveness and limitations of some natures. The fat toad, sitting on its hind legs, strokes its saggy belly with its front legs, glowing with satiated contentment. Although Ober's quest is rather an exception to the rule, it generally shows the very broad possibilities of the animalistic genre.
Л. Ober Rabbit and Greyhound
Today, animalism is an independent genre that receives special attention. Modern artists are increasingly turning to it, and exhibition projects in the world's largest museums are devoted to it, because the depiction of animals is the subject from which fine art itself began in ancient times.
Modern sculptors-animalists adhere to both traditions in the creation of their works, and strive to find something new. It can be a new technique of execution, and a new material. And, naturally, the modern urbanised environment dictates its own rules.
In modern animalistic sculptures we see a combination of classical style with new forms and meanings. Masters use new techniques and unexpected materials. Sculptures of animals and birds often have some allegorical meaning. The artist-sculptor deeply penetrates into the essence of the animal's behaviour, analyses it in different situations, trying to embody the idea in the material as accurately as possible. Animalistic sculpture of an animal not only anatomically accurately conveys the structure of the body, but also demonstrates its habits. That is why in many sculptures animals and birds are depicted in dynamics.
The work of the brilliant modern sculptor from Florence, Marino Marini, who is now called the best sculptor in Italy, is extraordinary. He has devoted his entire life to sculpture. Fascinated by symbolism at the same time as his love of modelling, Marini created monumental statues that seamlessly combine archaic features and modernist tendencies. His sculptures are sometimes implausible, so not every viewer can see the horse in a curved piece of bronze, but Marini did not aim for complete understanding.
The war had a great impact on Marino Marini's worldview. He was an artist who was able to express acutely in his works the horrors of war and the tragedy of the defeated man. In his works we see the most intense psychological moments - the loss of hope, the fall and death, the last moment of life.
Marino Marini. The Falling Horseman.
Creating the image of a rider, Marini continues the tradition, but at the same time polemises with it. The sculptor challenges the academicians - Marini's riders are not monumental and heroic at all. In his works, the author sought to tell about the tragic fate of man in the modern era, debunking the idea of man as "the measure of all things", as a hero.
Australian designer Sean Avery creates sparkling sculptures of various different animals from pieces of broken CDs of different colours. First, the discs are cut into different fragments, then sorted by colour and shape. After that, the necessary fragments are glued to the base.
It's always a challenge to give something flat a three-dimensional shape. Sean Avery has chosen his own creative method: he cuts different shaped parts from discs, but mostly his "characters" are dressed in pointed "scales". It perfectly imitates bird feathers and gives animals a fairy-tale look. His works are exhibited in museums in Baltimore, Hollywood.
Today, Sean Avery's portfolio includes dozens of amazing sculptures - animals, birds, insects, plants and even fictional creatures.
People's interest in animals never runs out, which is manifested first of all in different kinds of art, including sculpture. Trends in the development of sculpture are such that every year the boundaries of this art form are being pushed wider and wider.
The 20th century gave such different masters as Beuys and Rodin, Archipenko and Bourdelle, Mukhina and Tsadkin. No doubt, the new century will bring new discoveries and new names. Sculpture can already move, maybe it will speak?
Nowadays the society makes higher demands to pedagogical universities. There is a need to improve the professional training of artists-teachers, artists-sculptors.
These requirements, first of all, are dictated by the need to improve the quality of professional education of future artists-pedagogues, artists-designers, artists of decorative and applied arts, artists-architects, who are able to create, teach, make independent decisions, realise themselves in various types of artistic and pedagogical creativity.
Among people involved in the field of art, there is still an ongoing debate about the essence of artistic creation. Some prefer to call it a profession, emphasising the complexity of comprehending even the basics, while others, more romantic natures, consider it a vocation. In any case, one can become an artist only after many years of purposeful work on developing creative skills and studying the tradition of fine arts.
Since the birth of the fine arts, there has been no division into types - drawing, sculpture and painting have been perceived as something whole. In order to become a sculptor, as well as a professional in any other field of art, one has to go through a long way of mastery training, searching for one's own genre and style. To work in this field can only artists who have a vocation and are devoted to it.
As in any other business, to achieve the goal it is necessary to develop, to study the profile literature, to get acquainted with the works of famous masters, to visit exhibitions and museums. The most difficult thing in the process of mastering the technique of fine art is the development of figurative and plastic thinking. Familiarising oneself with the works of renowned masters of past centuries, as well as those of contemporaries, helps to broaden one's horizons, contributes to the development of empathy and enhances cultural education.
Sculpture occupies a special place in the training of creatively thinking specialists, future artist-pedagogues. It is difficult to overestimate the role of sculpture in the process of formation of figurative and plastic thinking and penetration into the essence of the image. All elements of other types of fine arts are present in plastic art. Sculpture uses its own language of expression - figurative-plastic.
Sculpture is a fertile ground for the development of creative imagination of students, formation of their artistic and aesthetic taste. For centuries it has been one of the main academic disciplines in the system of art education along with drawing, painting and composition. Creative activity in the field of volumetric plasticity is not given easily due to the physical, material and time costs required to create a sculptural work. In the process of sculpture classes, students' imagination is activated, giving birth to aesthetically valuable artistic images. By actively working on the image, students are spiritually enriched internally, demonstrate individual characteristics and accumulate creative experience.
Learning to sculpt requires many years of hard work. The teaching methodology is becoming more and more complex every year to gradually bring the professionalism of sculpting to a high level. The task of modern sculptors is not to lose the experience accumulated by the masters of the past, but to bring new meaning and their own vision of the subject.
The process of learning the art of sculpture has two sides: firstly, it is necessary to know the theory, and secondly, it is necessary to practice continuously to improve certain techniques and technical skills. These two components of the learning process must be in constant interaction in order to make the process of learning the basics of sculpture more dynamic and effective
When teaching animalistic sculpture, attention should be paid to the development of students' imaginative thinking and artistic vision of realistic sculpture in the animalistic genre.
Without studying plastic anatomy, sculpture classes, especially those related to the depiction of animals, people, animalistic, will not be very useful. To work on sculpture, it is necessary to have an idea of the structure of the human and animal body, the shape of bones and muscles, to be able to notice individual features of the model he is studying. Darwin wrote: "the great masters of painting and sculpture are amazingly subtle observers".
Future sculptors must necessarily study plastic anatomy, without knowledge of the structure of the human body or animal body a sculptor will not be able to work.
It is almost impossible to teach to see a sculpture from a reproduction. It is important that at the beginning of acquaintance with this kind of art students address directly to the work. It can be a city monument, a museum display, works presented at an exhibition or in the artist's studio, a plaster cast. Photographs or slides can then be used if necessary.
Analysing such a monument of art as sculpture has a number of fundamental differences from purely scientific analysis, since the aim in this case is to educate a deeply feeling and understanding viewer. Therefore, the basis of the story should not be a set of factual information about the artist's life, the prerequisites for the creation of the work or the technique of execution.
Students learn the basics of the craft by studying the best works of the great animal sculptors. When admiring great works of art, one experiences a spiritual uplift similar to the inspiration of the artist who created them.
It is known that Michelangelo received from the Roman Pope a rare prerogative to pass alone at night in the gardens and chambers of the palace, where the famous ancient statues were kept, to enjoy the marvellous works of art and study every inch of them.
The possibilities for analysing sculpture are truly inexhaustible. Studying this most ancient art form is difficult enough, but turning to it, comprehending its artistic images is a man's turning to his nature. Animalistics evokes a feeling of love for life and nature, so sculptures of this genre are interesting to viewers.
When teaching students to master sculpture, copying is of particular importance. So far, teachers have not reached a consensus on copying - is it good or bad? It is known that it used to be practised in art schools at least to make students become at least good apprentices, adopting the style of famous masters. Copying the works of old masters is divided into 3 types: amateur, apprentice and professional. It can be said that even in the modern world, student copying is a necessary basis for learning, a foundation without which it is impossible to educate a real sculptor.
In life we also learn by copying someone. For example, copying the behaviour of our parents, we learn to speak their language, adopt their manners, models of behaviour in different situations. Therefore, copying is a natural learning process. A young artist, like a newborn child, has no skills yet and needs to develop them. Many painters and sculptors once practised copying, which helped them to develop professional skills.
It is said that a sculptor needs to study all his life. This is true. But to learn not proportions, construction and other things that relate to art in the same way as literacy relates to writing, but other, real art, where the main thing is not learning, but understanding and discovery.
References:
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